Edgar Allan Poe :: essays research papers

Edgar Allan Poe was a master of his craft, gifted with the talent of introducing each reader to his or her own fears. As the first writer to compose tales of horror, death, and mystery into literature and poetry, he is blessed, maybe even cursed, with an imagination that set higher standards in the field of writing. However sinister or dark it may be, Poe’s writing continues to have an impact on the world of writing. A look into Poe’s childhood might shed some light on where his fascination with death comes from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edgar Allan Poe was born in 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts to drifting actor parents. Denying his parental responsibilities, Edgar’s father abandoned his wife and children, leaving her to support the family as best she could. He died somewhere around 1810. His mother traveled through various cities acting in as many stage performances as she could get, but the struggle eventually took a toll on her health. Towards the end of 1811, shortly after turning 2, while in Richmond, Virginia, she became ill and died. Her three children were put into homes. His brother William died young, his sister Rosalie later became insane, and Edgar was placed into the home of a well-off, yet unsupportive man named John Allan. Allan was emotionally detached from Poe, refusing to even legally adopt the boy. This move would begin a chain of events, eventually triggering a drinking problem, that would cause majority of Poe’s psychological troubles later in life. He was raised in an wealthy home, but lacked the emotional support needed to build determination and confidence in himself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Edgar would attend the finest boarding schools to train to be a proper gentleman. But, when it came time to go to the University of Virginia in 1826, his foster father barely gave him enough money to survive. In those days, the average college freshman was nineteen years old. Edgar was certainly wise beyond his years, enrolling in college only a month after his seventeenth birthday. This made it harder on Edgar to survive out on his own at such an early age. John Allan had always been strict and harsh, and sometimes even cruel to Edgar, but this was the first time he denied him the means to survive outside of his home. Adding insult to injury, he also forbade Edgar to study what his heart so desired: poetry.

Overcrowding Creates Unhappy Students Essay -- Expository Journalistic

Overcrowding Creates Unhappy Students Every high school student’s idea of typical college life involves living in the school’s dorms and eating disgusting food from the cafeteria. What most future college students don’t realize is that usually after the sophomore year of college, many universities do not guarantee housing, leaving students to fend for themselves. Housing is an issue on almost every university’s campus nationwide at one point or another. There is always a high demand for housing, and an even higher demand for on-campus housing. Many universities offer guaranteed housing to freshmen, but after that it is rare to receive anything better. To solve this problem universities are attempting to expand their campuses to incorporate more dorms, or are converting other buildings on campus into dorms. Not only is this process expensive for the university, it has also come to involve the local neighborhoods. When the university wants to expand that means the neighborhoods surrounding the school have to accommodate these changes; this has led to feuds between universities and residential neighborhoods around them. For example Harvard University; which already owns quite a bit of land in Boston, recently decided to expand its campus into Alston and a little into Brighton. In an article in the Boston Globe the residents of Alston and Brighton expressed their concerns about what will happen to the land, and how fast it will happen. Their main concern is that the new developments will increase the cost of living, and there will not be enough affordable housing. This will be an ongoing battle that will likely end with Harvard paying excessive amounts of money to the town to obtain the land. In an article in the Bos... ...e numerous complaints. â€Å"We will address this issue quickly and thoroughly,† Phelan said. â€Å"We want to be good neighbors.† According to the Globe article, city officials plan to ask Northeastern to appear before the licensing board, and have also hinted at legal action if the university doesn’t obtain a dorm license for the buildings. From problems of infestation to not enough rooms, universities around the state are in the same dilemma. Many have found solutions and are in the process of alleviating the problems, while others are still looking for a suitable solution. In the case of Northeastern, they have attacked the issue of over crowding by building numerous new buildings, but have yet to fix those buildings that are slowly deteriorating. Until they do this, they will have to find a way to make the living situation in these buildings a bit more bearable.

american folk :: essays research papers

The dancer is a man wearing leather boots, loose fitting red silk pants, and a white shirt with colored embroidering down the middle. His hair is shaved to the scalp except for a small circle on the top of his head, where the hair is about half a foot long. He squats down low, and kicks his feet out with his body upright and his arms folded. The dance has a historic meaning behind it, dating back to when Russia took over Ukraine. A group of organized rebels known as the Cossacks, who hoped to end Russian Rule, isolated themselves in a fort in the Carpathian Mountains. The dancer symbolizes a triumphant Cossack warrior. During festivals and other celebrations, the Hopak was a common dance. This dance is still taught to Ukrainian Americans today, starting at age seven. At Ukrainian debutante balls, the men who know the dance do it during a specific song, which is played at every ball. There are also professional dance groups who perform the Hopak around the United States and Canada. T he dancers today still wear the traditional clothing, but the hairstyle has become much less common. Many Ukrainians forget the dance with time, but those who remember it take great pride in their ability and perform the dance at nearly every ball and celebration they attend. This dance exists as a representation of Ukraine’s history, in particular the conflict with Russia. However, in the past, it served an entirely different function. The Hopak originates from the Kozac, which is an older Ukrainian dance. The Kozac is named after the Cossacks, who performed it, and it’s essentially the workout they performed to â€Å"warm up† for battle. â€Å"The movements were part of a regime of calisthenics to keep the Cossacks fit for battles.

History of Weapon Essay

A weapon simply means a device or a tool that is used to inflict injury upon opponents. It is used with application of effort manually or through electronic automation for the purpose of attack or defense in war. It could also be aimed at rendering the enemy’s weapons powerless by destroying their weapon with a superior gadget (Anthony1988). The simple force that is applied produces such a magnified effort that is capable of causing injury along the directed path. In the ages, weapon takes many forms on a chronological annul of history depending on technological advancement and discovery update in applied science. Most weapons used are designed purposefully to perform a particular task by the manufacturer in an engaging war or execution plan where there is no war. The simplicity of weapon model can appear in form of a club or taking form of a ballistic multipurpose missile with such a huge destructive capacity. Philosophically, there is an interesting side to the definition of the material weapon. Weapon is often metaphorically described as any means through which damage can be executed upon intended opposition party (Anthony1988). This means we could have a psychological weapon, a social weapon and other non physical tools. In more modern times, there has been development of non-deadly weapon by the paramilitary or security men for a mere incapacitation of targeted subject. Its advantage is found useful in a situation where criminal activities is rarely involved or to prevent accompanying damage to property and physical environments when used. In this study, we shall demonstrate how events over time led to technological advancement in weapon development from historical lane, paying more emphasis from the middle ages to the present days. Brief Review of Historical Weapons Figure 1: Picture displays arrays of bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools (Anthony 1988). About 5 million years ago, a researcher in the University of Southern California demonstrated that chimpanzees communities are first to use â€Å"spears† as a weapon (Rick 2007). Following this is the use mystery is the deduction that primitive hominids must have equally used â€Å"clubs and staves† s weapon of war within their community (Craig 1776). The evolution of conflicts among man in fight for supremacy began with the use of modified primitive weapons used by hominids. Man also used this weapon to hunt in a wide bush for possession and the driving away of wild inhabitants of the deep forest. In the early years of human history is found the use of axes fashioned with strong stones as weapons to make attack. The archeologist discovered the use of earliest cache camping â€Å"wooden spears known as schoninger speere† (Hartmut 1997). This is dated to as far back as four hundred thousand years ago. The stone fashioned axes were soon replaced by fire-hardened materials around. Bow and arrow is comparative recent and dated to about sixty thousands years back The use of wooden darts is dated to the era of mid-Paleolithic age (Jill 2007 ). Weapons used in The Middle Ages (Early 19th Century) Figure 2: A Cannon in Ancient London The middle age is also known as the medieval era. Historical advancement in weapons can be categorized into inventories on weapons not in prehistoric existence and inventories in terms of modifications on the existing weapons for a better performance. Dominating the desire for advanced weapons was born out of the need for faster, more fulfilling and deadlier weapons. Middle ages weapon by far is a show of development military technological advancement over the ancient weapons. The significance of this development is in the improvement in the force applied in relation to the destructive measure achieved. Weapons are now developed to perform a closer specific action without unnecessary invasion of large volume of land. This was a major revolutionary record in the history of military achievements in the middle ages. Over the use of armed chariots and spoke wheel which lost importance in the fourth century, the medieval period was characterized with the use of two weapons. The middle age weapons development was noted for knights and cannon. Knights, an evolved technological advancement over ancient cavalry, are heavily armed horse ridden soldiers with developing military operation that negates the use of castle. There was development of large caliber gun powder called cannon. Cannons had a more technologically advancement in historical findings (Jill 2007). A form of cannon is a heavy artillery weapon that is large enough to required mounting for firing. It is used on a warship and tracked vehicle. It is also more recently used, it is a rapid firing gun mounted on aircraft during air combat. Historically, medieval weapons are indeed a true evolution over what has been in existence earlier. Weapons are made with technologically skilled military personnel themselves who have witnessed the need for exact perfection over outdating weaponry tools. Ever since this inventory time, human being cannot forget the importance of paying close attention to weaponry industries in the role of killing. Most early technological advancement in weapon is in the area of rebranding metallic tools (Jill 2007). Steels crafting provides advancement over iron tool in that there is advantage of pliability, durability and more sharpened edges that kills faster with minimally applied effort. The prehistoric use of simple weapons like sword and catapults during personal fight evolved into a refined iron alloy (steel) in producing some materials and others like arrows and axes. Still an advancement of steel is the melting process that increases steel characteristic qualities to give increasing satisfaction of flexibility and light-weighted weapons. In middle ages of history, the little sword of prehistoric tools was not left over in the technological advancement that evolves over time in weaponry. There is stronger building materials for sword, the attached blade now has sharper edges and less likely to brake or bend in fierce use and above all, there exist flexibility in swinging to the direction of desired target to kill (Rick 2007). As part of a community war pride in the middle age was the possession of technologically advanced sword of a caucus over the order. Second to this is the experience of man power in their usage over time. The shaping took change into wide flat bladed sword with a guarding close to the handle. These were the technological advancement that caught up with sword in the middle age era. Others include the sharp pointing end that made it potent when forcefully thrust on an enemy at a distance before close contact. During the advancement, there was also the arrival of â€Å"bastard sword† in the fourteenth century. The potent weapon can be maneuver with a single hand, having a narrower and sharply pointing end that accomplished ultimate killing at a distance thrust. Evolutionary advancement was also recorded for bows and catapults. Producers became more proficient in crafting suiting tool that can increase swift killing thus, making advancement over older fashion (Rick 2007). The trend was historical advancement in the production of crossbows to a later substitution with long bows. More inventory techniques increase the production speed in order to outrun enemies’ arsenal and armory. The success of technological advancement is also in the place of speed and accuracy. The deadlier catapult was also part of the discovery credited to advancement in technology. Examples were â€Å"ballista and mangonels† advancement with the evolution of â€Å"trebuchet†. The trebuchet is a medieval siege engine with a sling attached to a wooden arm for flinging large stones with great projectile. Some version could be that effective as to throw over three hundred pounds or stone. With the increasing requirement by war men, trebuchet indeed was a significant advancement over catapults in the middle age by lifting the older approach in castle war with more siege capturing. Weapons in the Pre-Modern Age The rebirth of weapons into modernized tools is peaked in the invention of sophisticated firearms. There was notable advancement in the approach to battle field with the production of early guns and rocket-propelled weapons. The advancement here is such a resounding one as it touched the basis of energy transfer. Firearms qualitatively improve over other previous weapon in that the energy is not transferred by the tensile string or weighty object but by simple particles – gunpowder or other combustible explosives. The rapidity of energy transfer is also remarkably outstanding over earlier weapons. There is no time lagging in recoiling requirement when compared to primitive weapons. Firearms were markedly used during 16th to 19th centuries where there were several moments of ongoing conflict among nations. Notable conflicts that result into war during this era were proliferation of many European nations in the establishment of empires without official ceding. Some of the newly formed European federation survived with the won battle aided by evolution of firearms. Firearm continually received efficient development with more effortless triggering ignition to initiate firearm shot. Another beneficiary of technological advancement during early modern age is the U. S. Civil War against proliferated Federation of United State. This war featured the use of machine gun and ironclad warship. Up till today, these tools still find their relevance in the military armory. Armored ships also advance in the substitution of fueling with fossil fuel. These age equally witness rifle development over sword. This invention was an icon in the revolutionary history of military technological advancement quest. Shortly we enter the industrial age where we had advancement in the escalation of aircraft and armored tanks. There was not a significant improvement on the land combat weapons. Technological Improvement of Weapons in The Modern Age Figure 3. Soldier handling Machine Gun The beginning of 20th Century was welcome with cruel war between India and French where there is virtually absence of mechanically driven weapon for rifle weaponry. This era is often referred to â€Å"The Age of Rifles† since the least weapon used in battle field is reduced to rifle. Foot soldiers used rifle and canon for combat. Furthermore, there was the introduction of more mechanized weapons like machine gun with high capacity to shoot at distance. Other notable technological advancements in this era were aircraft carriers supplied for naval warfare. The evaluation of weapon inventories with important chronological event in this period would make one conclude that World War I heralded a full industrial revolution. More so, weapons modern proliferated at a higher rate with skilled technology without compromise on standard. The evolution of biotechnology also birthed chemical and biological weapons during this age. The availability of motor vehicle is also significant in the record of technological advancement since this aid weapons’ maneuvering during war as opposed to footing in the earlier centuries. Ever since the time of World War II, the evolution of more mechanized and sophisticated weapons set a standard for the rest of military advancement. This poised the invention of atomic bomb during this time (1939 to 1945). Post World War II Technological Improvement on Weapons The immediate war post WWII was cold war. During this period, the technological advancement peaked with the nations boosting of nuclear power that can destroy the world within few seconds. The drive continues in the invention of weapons of mass destruction and counter weapons. Another recent technological advancement in weaponry is the introduction of ballistic missile known as Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). There was also the development of hydrogen bomb and other war missiles. Despite many conflict of interests, the basis of existing peace among nations is sometimes traced to mutual possession of these nuclear power and ICBM by the two powerful war giants. There exist an atmosphere of peaceful comport since a breach in peace could lead to proportional destruction. The peak of technological advancement in the invention of nuclear weapons almost made its discovery useless since the achieved destruction through them is highly non specific at targeted enemy. It use could return the world back into the historic era where economic crisis dealt on the world sequel to WWII destruction. The proposed loss with the use of nuclear power would be rather more devastating. It is vital to further point out the invention of computerized weapons few years back. It aids precision and accuracy of target. Two notable ones are â€Å"precision-guided munitions and computer-aided tank rounds†. Furthermore, the present modern age with ICT and other developments in the 21st century, helped improves on night vision through goggles gadget that is technologically powered to see clearly at night like day vision. This is important among land combatant in a strange environment. Identification of target at long distance is equally now possible with the weaponry tools of high technological surveillance gadget and automated aerial. Modern communication enhancement also contribute immensely to effective coordination of weapons and controllers, hence, Information technology advancement has brought tremendous improvement to weaponry (U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment 1995). In conclusion, chronological history of weapon technology improvements from the Middle Ages to the present day has demonstrated vast growth in man search to possess power and protect it with unending weaponry development every century. It is not unlikely for technologist to soon invent the mother of all advancements in weapon engineering considering the need for competitive possession of power and acquisition of protective gadgets with the most sophisticated version in a dynamic global village. Works Cited Anthony, Isaac. Understanding Physics and Weapon of War (1988). New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 88. Hartmut Thieme. Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Letters to Nature. Nature 385, 807 – 810 (27 February 1997). Hind, Edward, My Magazine: Being a Series of Poems, Tales, Sketches, Essays, Orations, Etc. ,: The Present Age – An oration J. and H. Clarke, London, 1860. Jill D. Pruetz1 and Paco Bertolani, Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools†, Current Biology, March 6, 2007 Medieval Weapon History – An Evolution in Killing. Site Available at: www. medieval-castle-siege-weapons. com Pijush Roy, Paul, Akshoy, Sanchayan Mukherjee. Mechanical Sciences:Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials (2005). Prentice Hall of India. p. 215.

Creative Writing – My Baby

I was walking in the thick white snow, my cheeks pale pink, and my eyes wet, from the cold, razor-sharp wind that seemed to blow across my face. My hands in my pocket, and my head down prevented me from seeing my way, so I raised my head. All of a sudden, my eyes met his across the street; he was tall, with sea blue eyes and long strawberry blond hair, which made him look ugly. But his eyes distracted me from seeing his flaws. His small white teeth showing in a smile, when he returned my stare. I was warm; my cheeks grew bright red, my eyes flooded with admiration for his looks. â€Å"Was it love or lust†? I thought as, I continued to stare at him. He was so kind, loving and caring, with a great personality that always made me smile, while I slept. He constantly made me feel good, and I loved him so much; that I could stay awake just to hear him breathing. Due to the fact that we were so young, we couldn't consummate our love for one another. I was 17, and he was 18, when we both decided that we should take our love to the next level. We wanted it to be special, so we could treasure the moment for the rest of our lives, therefore we lied to our parents about where we were going. We stayed in a cottage, which had a fire place. We made love in front of the fire place. The fire made our body, so hot, and sweaty. I smiled, keeping the pleasure from showing in my eyes. I wish could spend the rest of my life in this sweet surrender. After we made love I felt, like I have never felt before; I was far away dreaming, I was in ecstasy. The art of making love was new to me, but was exhilarating. Satisfaction drowned my body. Our body became one; and we shared deep love and feelings. I have no recollection of being this happy before, but we made one mistake. We forgot to use protection-condom. At school we were never taught sex education. Anytime I asked my mum, about sex she would make me wash my mouth out with soap, then take me to church and tell the priest he should pray for me, because I was turning to sin. I always laughed when she did it. So I did it often just to watch her reaction. Three months later I found out I was pregnant. I knew I was pregnant because I had missed my period for three months; also I got fat, and had morning sickness. I did not tell the father that I was pregnant. I didn't want to, he wouldn't have stayed anyway. But every moment I spent with him I treasured. I didn't want to have the baby, I was too young. I thought of many ways of getting rid of the baby with out killing it. I didn't know what to do, or who to tell. It was too much for me to handle. So I decided to tell my mum. Telling my mum was the worst. When I told, her normally blue-gray eyes grew green with hatred. Then her lips tightened against her reply â€Å"ok darling†. She did not shout, scream nor sob. I felt as if in her reply there was a plan. Six months later. I was ready to give birth. I preferred making the baby, than  giving birth to it, as I dreamt far away of the night it happened. It was as if my scream of pain, triggered the baby. My baby was born; he was small, and breathtaking. My breath was taken away when my mum said â€Å"you can't keep him†. There was no way I could speak; my voice had gone with shock. She took my baby away from me. I turned away so she could not see the expressions in my eyes. It took a moment for the shock-wave of pain to travel down my body, to my brain. The agony was so intense that a scream involuntarily tore its way from my throat. I hated her for what she did. My mum and I lived in silence, in a house where the love had been stolen. Although I stayed to take care of her, because she was ill with Alzheimer. Since my baby was gone I had no love to give, I had put a brick wall around my heart, which was guarded by my hatred for the world. At home in the sitting room drinking my daily caffeine shot, while watching DR PHIL, and my mum rambling incoherent words to the T.V. The phone called for me. The voice came through the telephone, echoing through a corridor 12 months long. â€Å"We have an address†, said the voice on the phone, my heart started to beat loud; it got so loud it made the voice the inaudible. 314 maple road, Leicester, could be where  my son lives.  I hesitated when I got to the door. I didn't want to ruin his happiness, in his new  life. â€Å"But my happiness has already been ruined,† I said selfishly. My finger trembled as  I rang the bell twice. A little boy answered the door. Many questions argued in my mind all at once; could he be my son? Could this be my baby? I felt happy when he spoke; â€Å"hello â€Å"said the soft voice. I could stay lost in this moment forever.

John Keats – Ode to a Nightingale Criticism

Keats is in love with a nightingale. He is at a loss of how to feel; happy for witnessing the bird’s ‘high requiem’, or sad for not being part of its world. In the first stanza the poet is having clear symptoms of an extreme sadness. His ‘heart aches’ and a drowsy numbness pains’ his sense. This heavy mood is paradoxically denounced in the same stanza. It’s ‘being too happy’ in the nightingale’s happiness that’s causing the malaise. The stanza comes to an end in a joyful mood as opposed the heavy start of the poem. He imagines the bird’s home as ‘some melodious plot of beechen green’.Through this synaesthesia he creates a vivid picture of one of his classic bowers. The second stanza opens with a plea ‘for a drought of vintage’ through which he can fulfill his plea to ‘fade away’. This stanza evokes a lot of appeal to the sense of taste, ‘tasting of flora and c ounty green’. The theme of nature together with a joyful atmosphere is also evident. ‘Dance, and provencal song, and sunburnt mirth’. From the comfort of the dreamy second stanza, the third plunges the reader into the sad reality and banality of life. ‘The weariness, the fever, and the fret’ are a reality that the nightingale doesn’t know.Here ‘youth grows pale’ and ‘beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes’. This sombre stanza induces a feeling of a disappointing reality. It’s much better to belong to a dream than to this painful truth. This stanza is also a typical example of Keats’s obsession with illness and death. He decides to ‘fly’ to the nightingale’s realm. However he won’t do this through substance he pondered about in the first two stanzas, but through ‘the viewless wings of poesy’. This is a eulogy to poetry and its ability to take the reader to the spiritu al realm of imagination.He joins the nightingale where the trees let no light in except for when the wind moves their branches. The last three lines stress darkness and the gloomy colours of mundane existence. In the fifth stanza he cannot see what ‘soft incense hangs upon the boughs’. This synaesthesia leads the reader to touch the scent. He is enveloped in ‘embalmed darkness’ – where balm is a sweet smelling fragrance – but he can still imagine all that there in its midst. Through the heavenly eyes of imagination he can see the ‘white hawthorn and the pastoral eglantine’.He can see ‘fast fading violets’ and the musk-rose that is full of ‘dewy wine’ to make sure we know that this world being describe is the nightingale’s not the poet’s. He can also hear the ‘murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves’. After experiencing the extreme joy of the nightingale’s song he is findi ng it hard to go back to the harsh reality. He is playing with the tempting idea of an ‘easeful Death’. It would be a happy death, ‘now more than ever it seems rich to die’, ‘in such ecstasy’. But then his thought evolves further and understands that the nightingale would go on singing, and being death he would miss his ‘high requiem’.The switching from reality to fantasy keeps going on. The poet is back in the nightingale’s realm. It seems that the switch occurred also in his mood. From the rather dark mood of the sixth stanza, the seventh stanza introduces us to a rather jubilant Keats. He’s full of praise for the ‘immortal bird’ whose voice transcends from ‘ancient days’. ‘It was heard by emperor and clown’, which perhaps implies that its song is for everyone. It was heard by Ruth, a biblical figure who has a ‘sad heart’ to alleviate her pains. It’s song â €˜charm’d magic ceasments’ of faery which are ‘forlorn’ and the seas which are ‘perilous’.These words hint at the pain described in the first stanza, a pain the poet is trying to escape. This idea of pain introduces us to the next stanza. The same word ‘forlorn’ wakes him up; reminds him of reality. ‘Fancy’ or imagination is seen as a cheater. He awakes from this delusion understanding where he really belongs. This brings him to question if it all was a ‘vision, or a waking dream? ’ This is a reference to the transient and brief nature of imagination, perhaps the poem itself. It was all a momentary euphoria, ‘fled is that music: – do I wake or sleep’, it seems that the vision was too good to be true.

Acid rain

The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid Rain Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i. e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Though acidic rain was discovered in 1852, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. [6] The term â€Å"acid rain† was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. 7] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a â€Å"dead† lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U. S increased in the 1970s after The New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2. 4 have been reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. [13][14] Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended.